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Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and its inactivation with biocidal
agents
Günter Kampf, Daniel Todt, Stephanie Pfaender, Eike Steinmann
PII:
S0195-6701(20)30046-3
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2020.01.022
Reference:
YJHIN 5905
To appear in:
Journal of Hospital Infection
Received Date: 31 January 2020
Accepted Date: 31 January 2020
Please cite this article as: Kampf G, Todt D, Pfaender S, Steinmann E, Persistence of coronaviruses
on inanimate surfaces and its inactivation with biocidal agents, Journal of Hospital Infection, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2020.01.022.
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© 2020 The Healthcare Infection Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and its inactivation with biocidal agents
Günter Kampf1*, Daniel Todt2, Stephanie Pfaender2, Eike Steinmann2
1
University Medicine Greifswald, Institute for Hygiene and Environmental Medicine, WalterRathenau-Straße 49 A, 17475 Greifswald, Germany
2
Department of Molecular and Medical Virology, Ruhr University Bochum, Universitätsstrasse 50,
44801 Bochum, Germany
*Author for correspondence; email: guenter.kampf@uni-greifswald.de
1
Summary
Currently, the emergence of a novel human coronavirus, temporary named 2019-nCoV, has become
a global health concern causing severe respiratory tract infections in humans. Human-to-human
transmissions have been described with incubation times between 2-10 days, facilitating its spread
via droplets, contaminated hands or surfaces. We therefore reviewed the literature on all available
information about the persistence of human and veterinary coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces as
well as inactivation strategies with biocidal agents used for chemical disinfection, e.g. in healthcare
facilities. The analysis of 22 studies reveals that human coronaviruses such as Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) coronavirus, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus or
endemic human coronaviruses (HCoV) can persist on inanimate surfaces like metal, glass or plastic
for up to 9 days, but can be efficiently inactivated by surface disinfection procedures with 62-71%
ethanol, 0.5% hydrogen peroxide or 0.1% sodium hypochlorite within 1 minute. Other biocidal agents
such as 0.05-0.2% benzalkonium chloride or 0.02% chlorhexidine digluconate are less effective. As no
specific therapies are available for 2019-nCoV, early containment and prevention of further spread
will be crucial to stop the ongoing outbreak and to control this novel infectious thread.
Keywords: coronavirus; persistence; inanimate surfaces; chemical inactivation; biocidal agents;
disinfection
2
Introduction
A novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) has recently emerged from China with a total of 6065 laboratoryconfirmed cases of pneumonia (as of January 30, 2020) [1]. Together with Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome (SARS) coronavirus and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus [2], this is
the third highly pathogenic human coronavirus that has emerged in the last two decades. Person-toperson transmission has been described both in hospital and family settings [3]. It is therefore of
utmost importance to prevent any further spread in the public and healthcare settings. Transmission
of coronaviruses from contaminated dry surfaces has been postulated including self-inoculation of
mucous membranes of the nose, eyes or mouth [4, 5], emphasizing the importance of a detailed
understanding of coronavirus persistence on inanimate surfaces [6]. Various types of biocidal agents
such as hydrogen peroxide, alcohols, sodium hypochlorite or benzalkonium chloride are used
worldwide for disinfection, mainly in healthcare settings [7]. The aim of the review was therefore to
summarize all available data on the persistence of all coronaviruses including emerging SARS-CoV
and MERS-CoV as well as veterinary coronaviruses such as transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV),
mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) and canine coronavirus (CCV) on different types of inanimate surfaces
and on the efficacy of commonly used biocidal agents used in surface disinfectants against
coronaviruses.
Method
A Medline search has been done on January 28, 2020. The following terms were used, always in
combination with “coronavirus”, “TGEV”, “MHV” and “CCV”: survival surface (88 / 10 / 25 / 0 hits),
persistence surface (47 / 1 / 32 / 0 hits), persistence hand (8 / 0 / 3 / 0 hits), survival hand (22 / 0 / 3 / 1
hits), survival skin (8 / 0 / 0 / 1 hits), persistence skin (1 / 0 / 0 / 1 hit), virucidal (23 / 3 / 3 / 1 hits),
chemical inactivation (33 / 0 / 6 / 1), suspension test (18 / 0 / 0 / 0 hits) and carrier test (17 / 4 / 0 / 0).
Publications were included and results were extracted given they provided original data on
coronaviruses on persistence (surfaces, materials) and inactivation by biocidal agents used for
disinfection (suspension tests, carrier tests, fumigation studies). Data with commercial products
based on various different types of biocidal agents were excluded. Reviews were not included, but
screened for any information within the scope of this review.
Results
Persistence of coronavirus on inanimate surfaces
Most data were described with the endemic human coronavirus strain (HCoV-) 229E. On different
types of materials it can remain infectious for from 2 hours up to 9 days. A higher temperature such
as 30°C or 40°C reduced the duration of persistence of highly pathogenic MERS-CoV, TGEV and MHV.
However, at 4°C persistence of TGEV and MHV can be increased to ≥ 28 days. Few comparative data
obtained with SARS-CoV indicate that persistence was longer with higher inocula (Table I). In addition
it was shown at room temperature that HCoV-229E persists better at 50% compared to 30% relative
humidity [8].
Inactivation of coronaviruses by biocidal agents in suspension tests
Ethanol (78-95%), 2-propanol (70-100%), the combination of 45% 2-propanol with 30% 1-propanol,
glutardialdehyde (0.5-2.5%), formaldehyde (0.7-1%) and povidone iodine (0.23-7.5%) readily
inactivated coronavirus infectivity by approximately 4 log10 or more. (Table 2). Sodium hypochlorite
required a minimal concentration of at least 0.21% to be effective. Hydrogen peroxide was effective
with a concentration of 0.5% and an incubation time of 1 min. Data obtained with benzalkonium
chloride at reasonable contact times were conflicting. Within 10 min a concentration of 0.2%
3
revealed no efficacy against coronavirus whereas a concentration of 0.05% was quite effective.
0.02% chlorhexidine digluconate was basically ineffective (Table II).
Inactivation of coronaviruses by biocidal agents in carrier tests
Ethanol at concentrations between 62% and 71% reduced coronavirus infectivity within 1 min
exposure time by 3.0–4.0 log10. Concentrations of 0.1- 0.5% sodium hypochlorite and 2%
glutardialdehyde were also quite effective with > 3.0 log10 reduction in viral titre. In contrast, 0.04%
benzalkonium chloride, 0.06% sodium hypochlorite and 0.55% ortho-phtalaldehyde were less
effective (Table III).
Discussion
Human coronaviruses can remain infectious on inanimate surfaces at room temperature for up to 9
days. At a temperature of 30°C or more the duration of persistence is shorter. Veterinary
coronaviruses have been shown to persist even longer for 28 d. Contamination of frequent touch
surfaces in healthcare settings are therefore a potential source of viral transmission. Data on the
transmissibility of coronaviruses from contaminated surfaces to hands were not found. However, it
could be shown with influenza A virus that a contact of 5 s can transfer 31.6% of the viral load to the
hands [9]. The transfer efficiency was lower (1.5%) with parainfluenza virus 3 and a 5 s contact
between the surface and the hands [10]. In an observational study, it was described that students
touch their face with their own hands on average 23 times per h, with contact mostly to the skin
(56%), followed by mouth (36%), nose (31%) and eyes (31%) [11]. Although the viral load of
coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces is not known during an outbreak situation it seem plausible to
reduce the viral load on surfaces by disinfection, especially of frequently touched surfaces in the
immediate patient surrounding where the highest viral load can be expected. The WHO recommends
“to ensure that environmental cleaning and disinfection procedures are followed consistently and
correctly. Thoroughly cleaning environmental surfaces with water and detergent and applying
commonly used hospital-level disinfectants (such as sodium hypochlorite) are effective and sufficient
procedures.” [12] The typical use of bleach is at a dilution of 1:100 of 5% sodium hypochlorite
resulting in a final concentration of 0.05% [13]. Our summarized data with coronaviruses suggest that
a concentration of 0.1% is effective in 1 min (Table 3). That is why it seems appropriate to
recommend a dilution 1:50 of standard bleach in the coronavirus setting. For the disinfection of small
surfaces ethanol (62-71%; carrier tests) revealed a similar efficacy against coronavirus. A
concentration of 70% ethanol is also recommended by the WHO for disinfecting small surfaces [13].
No data were found to describe the frequency of hands becoming contaminated with coronavirus, or
the viral load on hands either, after patient contact or after touching contaminated surfaces. The
WHO recommends to preferably apply alcohol-based hand rubs for the decontamination of hands,
e.g. after removing gloves. Two WHO recommended formulations (based on 80% ethanol or 75% 2propanol) have been evaluated in suspension tests against SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, and both were
described to be very effective [14]. No in vitro data were found on the efficacy of hand washing
against coronavirus contaminations on hands. In Taiwan, however, it was described that installing
hand wash stations in the emergency department was the only infection control measure which was
significantly associated with the protection from healthcare workers from acquiring the SARS-CoV,
indicating that hand hygiene can have a protective effect [15]. Compliance with hand hygiene can be
significantly higher in an outbreak situation but is likely to remain an obstacle especially among
physicians [16-18]. Transmission in healthcare settings can be successfully prevented when
appropriate measures are consistently performed [19, 20].
Conclusions
4
Human coronaviruses can remain infectious on inanimate surfaces for up to 9 days. Surface
disinfection with 0.1% sodium hypochlorite or 62-71% ethanol significantly reduces coronavirus
infectivity on surfaces within 1 min exposure time. We expect a similar effect against the 2019-nCoV.
Conflict of interest
None.
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7
Table I. Persistence of coronaviruses on different types of inanimate surfaces.
Inoculum
Temperature Persistence Reference
(viral titer)
20°C
48 h
105
[21]
MERS-CoV Isolate HCoV-EMC/2012
30°C
8 – 24 h
4°C
≥ 28 d
TGEV
Unknown
106
20°C
3 – 28 d
[22]
40°C
4 – 96 h
Steel
4°C
≥ 28 d
MHV
Unknown
106
20°C
4 – 28 d
[22]
40°C
4 – 96 h
HCoV
Strain 229E
103
21°C
5d
[23]
Aluminium
HCoV
Strains 229E and OC43
5 x 103
21°C
2–8h
[24]
5
Metal
SARS-CoV
Strain P9
10
RT
5d
[25]
Wood
SARS-CoV
Strain P9
105
RT
4d
[25]
5
SARS-CoV
Strain P9
10
RT
4–5d
[25]
106
24 h
Paper
SARS-CoV
Strain GVU6109
105
RT
3h
[26]
104
< 5 min
SARS-CoV
Strain P9
105
RT
4d
[25]
Glass
HCoV
Strain 229E
103
21°C
5d
[23]
5
SARS-CoV
Strain HKU39849
10
22°-25°C
≤5d
[27]
20°C
48 h
5
[21]
MERS-CoV Isolate HCoV-EMC/2012
10
30°C
8 – 24 h
Plastic
SARS-CoV
Strain P9
105
RT
4d
[25]
SARS-CoV
Strain FFM1
107
RT
6–9d
[28]
7
HCoV
Strain 229E
10
RT
2–6d
[28]
PVC
HCoV
Strain 229E
103
21°C
5d
[23]
3
Silicon rubber
HCoV
Strain 229E
10
21°C
5d
[23]
Surgical glove (latex)
HCoV
Strains 229E and OC43
5 x 103
21°C
≤8h
[24]
6
10
2d
RT
[26]
Disposable gown
SARS-CoV
Strain GVU6109
105
24 h
Type of surface
Virus
Strain / isolate
8
Ceramic
Teflon
HCoV
HCoV
Strain 229E
Strain 229E
104
103
103
21°C
21°C
1h
5d
5d
[23]
[23]
MERS = Middle East Respiratory Syndrome; HCoV = human coronavirus; TGEV = transmissible gastroenteritis virus; MHV = mouse hepatitis virus; SARS = Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome; RT =
room temperature.
9
Biocidal agent
Ethanol
2-Propanol
2-Propanol and 1propanol
Benzalkonium chloride
Didecyldimethyl
ammonium chloride
Chlorhexidine
digluconate
Sodium hypochlorite
Hydrogen peroxide
Formaldehyde
Table II. Inactivation of coronaviruses by different types of biocidal agents in suspension tests.
Exposure
Reduction of viral
Concentration
Virus
Strain / isolate
time
infectivity (log10)
95%
SARS-CoV
Isolate FFM-1
30 s
≥ 5.5
85%
SARS-CoV
Isolate FFM-1
30 s
≥ 5.5
80%
SARS-CoV
Isolate FFM-1
30 s
≥ 4.3
80%
MERS-CoV
Strain EMC
30 s
> 4.0
78%
SARS-CoV
Isolate FFM-1
30 s
≥ 5.0
70%
MHV
Strains MHV-2 and MHV-N
10 min
> 3.9
70%
CCV
Strain I-71
10 min
> 3.3
100%
SARS-CoV
Isolate FFM-1
30 s
≥ 3.3
75%
SARS-CoV
Isolate FFM-1
30 s
≥ 4.0
75%
MERS-CoV
Strain EMC
30 s
≥ 4.0
70%
SARS-CoV
Isolate FFM-1
30 s
≥ 3.3
50%
MHV
Strains MHV-2 and MHV-N
10 min
> 3.7
50%
CCV
Strain I-71
10 min
> 3.7
SARS-CoV
Isolate FFM-1
30 s
≥ 4.3
45% and 30%
SARS-CoV
Isolate FFM-1
30 s
≥ 2.8
0.2%
HCoV
ATCC VR-759 (strain OC43)
10 min
0.0
0.05%
MHV
Strains MHV-2 and MHV-N
10 min
> 3.7
0.05%
CCV
Strain I-71
10 min
> 3.7
0.00175%
CCV
Strain S378
3d
3.0
Reference
[29]
[29]
[29]
[14]
[28]
[30]
[30]
[28]
[14]
[14]
[28]
[30]
[30]
[29]
[28]
[31]
[30]
[30]
[32]
0.0025%
CCV
Strain S378
3d
> 4.0
[32]
0.02%
0.02%
0.21%
0.01%
0.01%
0.001%
0.001%
0.5%
1%
MHV
CCV
MHV
MHV
CCV
MHV
CCV
HCoV
SARS-CoV
Strains MHV-2 and MHV-N
Strain I-71
Strain MHV-1
Strains MHV-2 and MHV-N
Strain I-71
Strains MHV-2 and MHV-N
Strain I-71
Strain 229E
Isolate FFM-1
10 min
10 min
30 s
10 min
10 min
10 min
10 min
1 min
2 min
0.7 – 0.8
0.3
≥ 4.0
2.3 – 2.8
1.1
0.3 – 0.6
0.9
> 4.0
> 3.0
[30]
[30]
[33]
[30]
[30]
[30]
[30]
[34]
[28]
10
Glutardialdehyde
Povidone iodine
0.7%
0.7%
0.7%
0.009%
2.5%
0.5%
7.5%
4%
1%
1%
0.47%
0.25%
0.23%
0.23%
0.23%
SARS-CoV
MHV
CCV
CCV
SARS-CoV
SARS-CoV
MERS-CoV
MERS-CoV
SARS-CoV
MERS-CoV
SARS-CoV
SARS-CoV
SARS-CoV
SARS-CoV
MERS-CoV
Isolate FFM-1
Strain I-71
Hanoi strain
Isolate FFM-1
Isolate HCoV-EMC/2012
Isolate HCoV-EMC/2012
Hanoi strain
Isolate HCoV-EMC/2012
Hanoi strain
Hanoi strain
Hanoi strain
Isolate FFM-1
Isolate HCoV-EMC/2012
2 min
10 min
10 min
24 h
5 min
2 min
15 s
15 s
1 min
15 s
1 min
1 min
1 min
15 s
15 s
> 3.0
> 3.5
> 3.7
> 4.0
> 4.0
> 4.0
4.6
5.0
> 4.0
4.3
3.8
> 4.0
> 4.0
≥ 4.4
≥ 4.4
[28]
[30]
[30]
[35]
[36]
[28]
[37]
[37]
[36]
[37]
[36]
[36]
[36]
[38]
[38]
SARS = Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome; MERS = Middle East Respiratory Syndrome; MHV = mouse hepatitis virus; CCV = canine coronavirus; HCoV = human coronavirus.
11
Table III. Inactivation of coronaviruses by different types of biocidal agents in carrier tests.
Biocidal agent
Ethanol
Benzalkoniumchloride
Sodium hypochlorite
Glutardialdehyde
Ortho-phtalaldehyde
Hydrogen peroxide
50 µl / stainless steel
50 µl / stainless steel
50 µl / stainless steel
50 µl / stainless steel
20 µl / stainless steel
50 µl / stainless steel
50 µl / stainless steel
20 µl / stainless steel
20 µl / stainless steel
20 µl / stainless steel
50 µl / stainless steel
50 µl / stainless steel
20 µl / stainless steel
20 µl / stainless steel
50 µl / stainless steel
50 µl / stainless steel
Organic
load
None
None
None
None
5% serum
None
None
5% serum
5% serum
5% serum
None
None
5% serum
5% serum
None
None
Exposure
time
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
1 min
Reduction of viral
infectivity (log10)
3.5
2.0
3.2
3.9
> 3.0
4.0
2.7
< 3.0
> 3.0
> 3.0
0.4
0.6
< 3.0
> 3.0
2.3
1.7
20 µl / stainless steel
None
2–3h
4.9 – 5.3*
Concentration
Virus
Strain / isolate
Volume / material
71%
71%
70%
70%
70%
62%
62%
0.04%
0.5%
0.1%
0.06%
0.06%
0.01%
2%
0.55%
0.55%
Vapor of
unknown
concentration
TGEV
MHV
TGEV
MHV
HCoV
TGEV
MHV
HCoV
HCoV
HCoV
TGEV
MHV
HCoV
HCoV
TGEV
MHV
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Strain 229E
Unknown
Unknown
Strain 229E
Strain 229E
Strain 229E
Unknown
Unknown
Strain 229E
Strain 229E
Unknown
Unknown
TGEV
Purdue strain
type 1
Reference
[39]
[39]
[39]
[39]
[40]
[39]
[39]
[40]
[40]
[40]
[39]
[39]
[40]
[40]
[39]
[39]
[41]
TGEV = transmissible gastroenteritis virus; MHV = mouse hepatitis virus; HCoV = human coronavirus; *depending on the volume of injected hydrogen peroxide
12