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Synthesis, characterization and biological evaluation of labile intercalative ruthenium(ii) complexes for anticancer drug screening.
Scientiae Radices, 4(1), 29-42 (2025)
Full Paper
Binding studies of Ru(II) complex with DNA isolated from
chicken liver extract
Gaflin Shelty, (1) Sumitha Celin, Allen Gnana Raj
(1)
Department of Chemistry and Research Centre, Scott Christian College
(Autonomous) Nagercoil, Affiliated to Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Tamil Nādu, India
Correspondence to: sumithaezhil77@gmail.com
Abstract: Ruthenium polypyridyl complexes have garnered attention due to
their promising coordination chemistry and potential applications in
biological and photophysical research. This study investigates the
synthesis and binding properties of [Ru(NN)3]2+ complexes (where
NN= bpy,dmbpy) with DNA models like chicken liver DNA. Using UV
– Visible and emission spectroscopy, significant bathochromic shifts
were observed, indicating strong interactions and possible
intercalative binding. The results highlight the unique affinity and
photophysical behavior of Ruthenium polypyridyl complexes,
contributing to a deeper understanding of their potential probes as
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Scientiae Radices, 4(1), 29-42 (2025)
therapeutic agents. The research opens avenues forfuture
explorations in medical and agricultural chemistry.
Keywords: Chickenliverdna, Ruthenium complexes, Emission, Benesi-Hildebrand
plot, Binding constant.
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
2024.12.15
2025.02.10
2025.02.13
DOI: 10.58332/ scirad2025v4i1a03
Introduction
Metal complexes are inherently endowed with extensive biological properties. Despite
their scant implementation in the pharmaceutical industry as drugs, these compounds are
widely used to unveil the structural behavior and functions of nucleic acids and promoters in
various fascinating processes. The most investigated metal complexes to date entail
platinum and ruthenium central metal ions. First-row transition metal complexes are
considered promising candidates for the design of potential anticancer agents [1]. Organo
ruthenium complexes are one of the most interesting species among the other platinum
group metals due to their flexibility, remarkable biological activity and catalytic activity [2].
In bioinorganic chemistry, the interactions of metal complexes with DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) have recently attracted attention. The ability of metal complexes to
bind and cleave DNA is linked to its use in the synthesis of synthetic restriction enzymes,
novel medications, DNA foot printing agents, and other products. Because of their ability to
bind DNA through a variety of interactions and cleave the duplex due to their inherent
chemical, electrochemical, and photochemical reactivities, metal complexes have been
discovered to be very helpful for the aforementioned goals [3-5].
The genetic information necessary for every living organism's cellular efficiency and
operation is contained in DNA, a biomacromolecule. Many anticancer medications target DNA
as their main target molecule, and the way that DNA and metal complexes bind together has
been used to understand how the drugs interact with DNA. Generally speaking, halting the
reproduction of the abnormal DNA can destroy the tumor cells. There are three different
ways by which metal complexes can cleave DNA: hydrolytic, oxidative, and photolytic
cleavages. Since a significant portion of chemotherapeutic anticancer medications contain a
substance that binds to DNA and alters DNA within cells, the DNA-metal complex interaction
is crucial for the production of novel chemotherapy medications. Furthermore, bioactive
metal complexes are practical biological instruments [6-9].
Actually, these complexes have interesting properties like being anti-inflammatory,
and having anticancerand antitumor effects when they bind to DNA. Studies on transition
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Scientiae Radices, 4(1), 29-42 (2025)
metal complexes with mixed ligands have shown that Ruthenium complexes are useful
probes for examining DNA interactions because of their distinct electrical characteristics and
stable coordination structures. These complexes frequently exhibit high intercalative binding
affinities, which are impacted by the DNA's structural characteristics, including sequence
specificity, helical conformation, and GC content. Assessing these interaction potential as
therapeutic agents or diagnostic tools requires an understanding of cancer cells, evaluating
their cytotoxicity, and researching how they work.
The promise of ruthenium complexes in biomedical applications is demonstrated by
their varied binding characteristics with nucleic acids, especially DNA and RNA. Research
indicates that ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes, like [Ru(bpy)2(7-F-dppz)]2+, exhibit
robust intercalative binding to duplex RNA, with binding affinity impacted by environmental
factors and ligand substituents [10]. Spectroscopic methods are frequently used to analyze
the binding interactions, providing information on the cytotoxicity and mechanisms of action
against cancer cells. The capacity of ruthenium-bipyridyl complexes to bind DNA and
produce radicals, which might result in cell death, is linked to their cytotoxic effects [11].
Ruthenium complexes have shown promising anticancer properties, with some complexes
demonstrating the ability to inhibit DNA replication and induce cytotoxic effects in cancer cell
lines. The unique binding properties of these complexes suggest their potential as
therapeutic agents, particularly in targeting DNA in cancer cells.
Studies have shown that certain ruthenium complexes possess high binding constants
(Kb), indicating strong interactions with DNA. For example, a specific Ru(II) complex
exhibited a Kb of 2.2 × 104 M−1, suggesting effective DNA targeting [12]. Ruthenium
complexes have been designed to selectively target tumor cells, thus enhancing their
therapeutic efficacy. The NBD-Ru complex was shown to penetrate the nucleus and interact
with DNA, leading to significant tumor cell death [13]. Certain ruthenium complexes have the
potential to be used in photodynamic treatment because they can produce reactive oxygen
species when light is activated, which damages DNA and causes cell death [14]. Because of
their special interaction with DNA, ruthenium-based medications like NAMI-A and KP1019,
which are presently undergoing clinical trials, offer promise as successful cancer treatments.
In this present study binding studies were carried out using the DNA extracted from
chicken liver. Chicken livers are high in protein and a rich store of folate, which is important
for fertility and helps prevent certain birth defects. Livers are also loaded with iron to give
energy and a treasure trove of certain B vitamins, most notably B12. Chicken liver is known to
contain a high concentration of nonhistone chromosomal proteins, which are important for
studying DNA-binding activities. These proteins play a crucial role in gene regulation, making
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Scientiae Radices, 4(1), 29-42 (2025)
chicken liver a valuable source for research in this area. The tightly-bound NHCP from
chicken liver chromatin has been shown to exhibit specific DNA-binding activities. This
characteristic allows researchers to investigate how these proteins interact with DNA, which
is essential for understanding gene expression and regulation. In chicken liver chromatin,
nonhistone chromosomal proteins exhibit high-affinity DNA binding. These proteins maintain
their binding activity even under high ionic strength conditions, suggesting a robust and
sequence-specific interaction with DNA.
Previous studies have indicated that NHCP from chicken liver may have different
binding preferences compared to those from other sources, such as rat or mouse liver. The
binding of the enantiomer Δ-[Ru(bpy)2MBIP]2+ intercalated into calf thymus DNA more
deeply than Λ-[Ru(bpy)2MBIP]2+ exhibiting a better DNA photocleavage ability. This
variability provides insights into the evolutionary differences in gene regulation among
species.
This work establishes that ruthenium complexes as potent tools for examining DNA
interactions, creating new avenues for advancements in biotechnology and medicine [15-26].
Table 1. Constituents of chicken liver
Nutrients
Vitamin A
Vitamin C
VitaminB 12
Vitamin B6
Sodium
Chiken liver (100 g)
11077 IU
17.9 mg
16.6 mg
0.9 mg
71 mg
Nutrient
Selenium
Riboflavin
Folate
Iron
Potassium
Chiken liver (100 g)
54.6 mcg
1.8 mg
577 mg
9.0 mg
230 mg
Results and discussion
Ruthenium complexes are the most researched complexes because of their
photophysical and excited state characteristics. In an aqueous solution, [Ru(bpy)3]2+ exhibits
an absorption maximum at 453 nm and an emission maximum at 596 nm. Triplet metal to
ligand charge transfer state (3MLCT) is the lowest excited state of [Ru(bpy)3]2+. Three closely
spaced, equilibrium excited states that are discernible at 5K but in equilibrium at and above
77K combine to form the lowest 3MLCT. The emission maximum of Ru(II) complexes
originates from d-* 3MLCT transition.
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Scientiae Radices, 4(1), 29-42 (2025)
Figure 1. Structure of the chosen Ruthenium complexes.
Absorption and emission spectral measurement
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. (a) Absorption, (b) emission spectrums of [Ru(bpy)3]2+ complexes in aqueous medium
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Scientiae Radices, 4(1), 29-42 (2025)
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. (a) Absorption, (b) emission spectrums of [Ru(dmbpy)3]2+ complexes in aqueous medium
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. (a) Absorption, (b) emission spectral measurements of Chicken Liver DNA
medium
in aqueous
Figures 2, 3 and 4 represents the absorption and emission spectra of the two Ru
complexes and the DNA extract. In an aqueous solution, the maximal absorption and
emission wavelengths for the [Ru(dmbpy)3]2+ complex are 458 nm and 595 nm,
respectively.21 The highest absorption of the chicken liver DNA extract occurs at 329.9 nm.Its
emission maximum is seen at 658.5 nm.
Table 2. Photophysical properties of [Ru(NN)3]2+ and Chicken Liver DNA in aqueous medium.
Complexes
Absorption
maximum (nm)
Emission
Maximum(nm)
[Ru(bpy)3]2+
[Ru(dmbpy)3]2+
Chick Liver DNA
453
458
329.9
596
595
658.5
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Scientiae Radices, 4(1), 29-42 (2025)
(a)
(b)
Figure. 5 Absorption spectra of (a) [Ru(bpy)3]2+ and (b) [Ru(dmbpy)3]2+ complexes with incremental
concentration of the Chicken liver DNA extract.
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Emission spectra of (a) [Ru(bpy)3]2+ and (b) [Ru(dmbpy)3]2+ complexes with incremental
concentration of the Chicken liver DNA extract.
The binding of the DNA extracted fromthe chicken liver with various metal complexes
are obtainedusing these data got from absorption as well as emission spectral data. The
concentration of the metal complex was kept fixed and the DNA concentration was varied
such that the total volume of the DNA-metal complex solution was 5 mL. The absorption and
emission measurements were taken for various complex concentrations. The change in
absorbance
were calculated for the absorption measurements. For the emission spectral
data, the change in emission intensity were also calculated. Figures 5 and 6 displays the
absorption and emission spectral peaks of the complexes with incremental concentration of
the DNA extract. Using these calculations, the binding constant for the drug-metal
interaction were found out. This is done using the Benesi-Hildebrand plot.
These data obtained from absorption and emission spectrum data are used to
calculate the binding of the DNA with different metal complexes. The total volume of the
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Scientiae Radices, 4(1), 29-42 (2025)
DNA metal complex solution was maintained at 5 mL by varying the DNA concentration while
maintaining a constant metal complex concentration. Measurements of absorption and
emission weretaken for different amounts of complex DNA. For the absorption
measurements, the variations in absorbance were computed. The change in emission
intensity was also computed using the emission spectrum data.
(a)
(b)
Figure 7. Benesi-Hildebrand plot for the (a)absorption and (b) emission spectra data of [Ru(bpy) 3]2+
on binding with the DNA extract.
(a)
(b)
Figure 8. Benesi-Hildebrand plot for the (a) absorption and (b) emission spectra data of
[Ru(dmbpy)3]2+ with incremental concentration of the DNA extract.
Table 3. Binding constant of the chicken liver DNA with [Ru(NN) 3]2+ complexes
Complex
Binding type
2+
[Ru(bpy)3]
UV bind
2+
[Ru(bpy)3]
Emission bind
2+
[Ru(dmbpy)3]
UV bind
2+
[Ru(dmbpy)3]
Emission bind
Intercept
10.433
0.06426
6.308
0.6635
Slope
4.677×10-5
9.98×10-8
1.089×10-4
6.431×10-7
Binding constant (L/mol) Kb
2.23×105
2.23×105
5.792×104
5.792×104
Based on the absorption and emission spectral binding data, the binding constant for
the samples for different concentration is given in Table 2. These data shows that the
complex [Ru(bpy)3]2+ has the highest binding with the chicken liver DNA. Chick liver DNA,
being from a complex eukaryotic organism, might have a more intricate secondary structure
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Scientiae Radices, 4(1), 29-42 (2025)
(eg. More supercoiling or different level of methylation), which could impact binding. The
more compact structure of chicken liver DNA, might explain the enhanced binding affinity of
ruthenium complex, as reflected in increased bathochromic shift and stronger bathochromic
effect. Chicken liver DNA has higher GC content, which can affect binding interactions.
Material and methods
Sigma Aldrich was the supplier of the ligands 2,2ˈ-bipyridine and 4,4ˈ-dimethyl-2,2ˈbipyridine. The study's chick liver was bought locally, and double-distilled deionized water
was used for the binding tests. The remaining solvents and chemicals were all of reagent
grade and were used exactly as supplied.
Synthesis of Tris (2,2'- bipyridine) Ruthenium (II) Chloride, [Ru(bpy)3]Cl2
After dissolving 0.5g of RuCl3 3H2O and 0.6g of 2, 2-bipyridine in 25 mL of ethanol,
the mixture was refluxed for 20 hours. The ethanol solution contained the orange-red
complex that was produced as a result. Using n-propanol as an eluent, the crude product
was purified on a silica gel column.22 Evaporation was followed by the recovery of the pure
complex. The compound in CH3CN has an absorption maximum (λabsmax) of 448 nm and an
emission maximum (λ emmax) of 596 nm.
Synthesis ofTris(4,4-dimethyl-2,2-bipyridine)ruthenium(II)tetrafluoroborate,
[Ru(dmbpy)3](BF4)2.
RuCl3.3H2O (1 mM) and 4,4ˈ-dimethyl-2,2ˈ-bipyridine (3 mM) were dissolved in 20
mL of ethylene glycol and refluxed for 4 hours. The solution was then allowed to cool at
room temperature and filtered to remove any insoluble impurities. A saturated solution of
sodium tetrafluoroborate was then added dropwise into the filtrate until an orange
precipitate is formed. The product was filtered, washed with cold water and diethyl ether
and further dried in a vacuum desiccator. The product was further purified by
recrystallisation from water. The absorption maximum (absmax) and emission maximum
(emmax) of the complex in CH3CN are 458 nm and 601 nm respectively.
Synthesis of chicken liver DNA
About 5 g of chicken liver is weighed and added to a cold blender with 150 ml cold
saline citrate buffer which is blended for 50-60 secs. The homogenate is centrifuged for 15
mins at 4 C and the supernatant is discarded. This step is repeated 3 times and the pellet is
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Scientiae Radices, 4(1), 29-42 (2025)
then dissolved with 20 ml of 2.6 N NaOH and shaken vigorously. Then it is centrifuged for 20
mins to settle the insoluble protein. The supernatant is poured in a beaker and 2-3 volume of
95% of cold ethanol is added through the sides of the beaker. The genetic material floating
on the surface is collected using a glass rod and washed with 70% ethanol.
Equipments
The
absorption
spectrum
was
recorded
using
SYSTRONICS
Double
Beam
Spectrophotometer 2203 for both the complexes [Ru(bpy)3]2+ and [Ru(dmbpy)3]2+ as well as
the binding studies of the produced complexes with the DNA sample. The emission spectrum
were taken using JASCO/FP 8200 spectrofluorometer. All the sample solutions used for
emission measurements were kept in cold water to ensure that there was no change in the
volume of the solution. All measurements were carried out at room temperature.
Determination of association constants using absorption and emission techniques
The association constants (Kaabs ) of the [Ru(NN)3]2+ complexes with DNA extracted
from Liver, peas and spinach in homogeneous medium were calculated using Benesi –
Hildebrand method (eqn.1).23
1
1
1
=
[H]+ [Q]
∆𝐴 𝐾
∆
𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑠
(1)
Here, [H] - concentration of the host (sensitizer), [Q] - concentration of the guest (DNA), A
- the change in the absorbance of the [H] on the addition of [Q].- difference in the molar
extinction coefficient between the free [H] and [H]-[Q]complex. For all the guest molecules
examined, plot of 1/A values as a function of 1/[Q] values give good straight line,
supporting the 1:1 complex formation. The association constant can be obtained from the
ratio of Y-intercept to the slope of the straight line.
Conclusions
Ruthenium bipyridyl complexes have gained attention in medical field, particularly in
cancer therapy, due to their unique physio-chemical properties. It is seen that ruthenium
bipyridyl complex have shown selective toxicitytoward cancer cells while sparing healthy
cells. Their ability to undergo ligand exchange and interact with biomolecules in cancer cells
makes them promising for targeting tumor DNA.
Thus, the current endeavor has examined the binding of [Ru(NN)3]2+ (NN = 2,2ˈbipyridine,4,4ˈ-dimethyl-2,2ˈ-bipyridine.) with chicken liver DNA extract. In addition to the
specifics of the electronic absorption and emission spectral measurements, the photophysical
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Scientiae Radices, 4(1), 29-42 (2025)
and photochemical characteristics of these complexes are examined. It has been
investigated how the DNA extract bind to the Ruthenium (II) complexes. The evaluation of
binding constants were
described in detail. According to our current research, the DNA
extract has a strong affinity for [Ru(bpy)3]2+ complex. It
has the highest binding with the
chicken liver DNA with value of 2.23×105. This increase in binding constant shows good
interaction which is crucial as it suggests that the complexes can effectively bind to DNA,
which is a key factor in their potential therapeutic applications.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the management for providing the DST-FIST lab facilities
and the Chemistry Department of Scott Christian College(Autonomous), Nagercoil
for carrying out the project work.
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