Anticancer Activity and Catalytic Potential of Ruthenium(II)-Arene Complexes with N,O-Donor Ligands.

Article pubs.acs.org/IC Cite This: Inorg. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX Anticancer Activity and Catalytic Potential of Ruthenium(II)−Arene Complexes with N,O-Donor Ligands Mohammad Mehdi Haghdoost, Juliette Guard, Golara Golbaghi, and Annie Castonguay* INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier, Université du Québec, 531 boul. des Prairies, Laval, Quebec H7V 1B7, Canada S Supporting Information * ABSTRACT: The special ability of organometallic complexes to catalyze various transformations might offer new effective mechanisms for the treatment of cancer. Studies that report both the biological properties and the ability of metallic complexes to promote therapeutically relevant catalytic reactions are limited. Herein, we report the anticancer activity and catalytic potential of some ruthenium(II)−arene complexes bearing bidentate Schiff base ligands (2a and 2b) and their reduced analogues (5a and 5b, respectively). In comparison to their Schiff base counterparts 2a and 2b, we demonstrate that amine complexes 5a and 5b display (i) a higher in vitro antiproliferative activity on different human cancer cell lines, (ii) a lower rate of hydrolysis, and (iii) an improved initial catalytic rate for the reduction of NAD+ to NADH. In contrast to their imine analogues 2a and 2b, we also show that amine complexes 5a and 5b induce the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Our results highlight the impact that a simple ligand modification such as the reduction of an imine moiety can have on both the catalytic and biological activities of metal complexes. Moreover, the ruthenium complexes reported here display some antiproliferative activity against T47D breast cancer cells, known for their cis-platin resistance. ■ INTRODUCTION Mn(II) complexes with superoxide dismutase activity have entered clinical trials for the treatment of metastatic cancer.7 Ruthenium complexes hold promise as potential alternatives to platinum drugs currently used in various chemotherapy regimens.8 Because of their high catalytic activity for various oxidation/reduction reactions,9 they are excellent candidates for the modulation of the redox status of cancer cells. Notably, some Ru(II) complexes were reported to catalytically oxidize glutathione (GSH) to its corresponding disulfide (GSSG)10 under biological conditions, causing cancer cell death via oxidative stress.11 A novel catalytic metallodrug system was recently reported using Noyori-type Ru(II) complexes to reduce NAD+ to NADH in human cells in the presence of nontoxic doses of formate as a hydride source.2b This catalytic reaction is believed to cause cancer cell death via reductive stress, a mechanism that has not yet been fully explored. We recently reported the in vitro antiproliferative activity of Ru(II)−arene complexes bearing bidentate N,O-donor Schiff base ligands.12 As numerous efficient ruthenium catalysts Catalytic metallodrugs are considered as promising candidates for overcoming drawbacks of current chemotherapies.1 As they can potentially be administered in small doses and act via novel modes of action, they are likely to display low toxicities and circumvent the development of drug resistance. Thus, a better understanding of the factors that positively affect both the anticancer and catalytic activities of metal-based complexes could lead to the discovery of novel effective mechanisms for the treatment of cancer. Numerous low-molecular weight catalytic metallodrugs were reported to successfully promote specific biochemical transformations of importance.1,2 Of high interest are metal complexes that can undergo cellular internalization and catalytically produce reducing or oxidizing agents, leading to cell dysfunction/death by altering their redox status.3 Such an approach is promising for the development of new effective mechanisms for cancer therapy. Redox-modulating catalytic metallodrugs can induce cancer cell death by various mechanisms such as the formation of singlet oxygen,4 the dismutation of superoxide radicals,5 and the oxidation of thiols and/or transfer hydrogenation.2b,c,6 For instance, some © XXXX American Chemical Society Received: February 8, 2018 A DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b00346 Inorg. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX Article Inorganic Chemistry Scheme 1. Synthetic Route to Ruthenium Complexes include secondary amines in their coordination sphere,13 we reasoned that the preparation of secondary amine analogues of some of these complexes could lead to species with enhanced catalytic and/or anticancer properties, and potentially help illuminating their possible mode(s) of action. Cyclohexane and furan-substituted ligands were selected for this study, not only because those substituents are among the most frequently used ring systems in small molecule drug design and their incorporation into the structure of transition metal complexes could potentially lead to interesting drug candidates,14 but also because of their great difference in lipophilicity. We know from previous studies that Ru(II)−arene complexes bearing cyclohexane and furan-substituted bidentate N,O-donor Schiff base ligands display a noticeable difference in their antiproliferative activity against cancer cells and that this difference could be attributed to their lipophilicity. For instance, a 4-fold improvement in antiproliferative activity against A2780 ovarian cancer cells was noted when a furyl substituent was replaced with a cyclohexyl. In this study, we were interested in assessing if this difference could affect the antiproliferative activity of analogous complexes with reduced ligands. Herein, we report the synthesis and characterization of similar Ru complexes with amine ligands (reduced corresponding imine ligands) and demonstrate that this small structural modification leads to complexes with improved anticancer and catalytic properties. (NMR), high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HR-ESI-MS) and elemental analysis. However, depending on the conditions used, this reduction reaction led to the formation of variable amounts of unexpected side products (Scheme S1). 3a and 3b could exclusively be obtained by allowing 1a and 1b to respectively react with NaBH4 at room temperature for 15 min (addition at 0 °C), whereas increasing the reaction temperature or/and prolonging the reaction time resulted in the formation of a larger amount of side products. When ligands 3a and 3b were allowed to react with [Ru(benzene)Cl2]2 in refluxing ethanol for 5 h, the respective formation of target complexes 5a and 5b was not observed by NMR. Instead, the formation of unexpected ruthenium complexes 4a and 4b was detected, species arising from the breakage of the C−N bond of one of the ligands (Scheme 1). Nevertheless, complexes 5a and 5b could both be prepared in approximately 20% yield (Scheme 1) when the reaction was performed at room temperature, and with a more satisfactory yield (33−45%) when a base such as triethylamine was used in excess. The reduced form of the ligand in chiral complexes 5a and 5b was confirmed by 1H NMR analysis, which showed a broad peak for the N−H proton and four distinctive peaks for the protons on the two adjacent carbons.16 Whereas only one set of signals could be observed in the 1H NMR spectrum of 5a in CDCl3, two diastereoisomers could be distinguished in the case of 5b. The isolation of both species and the unambiguous assignment of their chiral centers were not pursued. Interestingly, complexes 5a and 5b were found to display a thermal stability higher than that of their corresponding ligands. For instance, no decomposition could be detected by 1H NMR after refluxing a solution of complex 5a or 5b in ethanol (∼15 mM) for 2 h. However, as expected from previous results, decomposition products were noted when 3a or 3b underwent the same treatment. The latter observation suggests that at elevated temperatures, the thermal cleavage of ligands 3a and ■ RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Synthesis and Characterization. Ru(II)−arene complexes 2a and 2b bearing cyclohexane- and furan-substituted bidentate N,O-donor Schiff base ligands were readily obtained by mixing [Ru(benzene)Cl2]2 and corresponding ligands 1a and 1b in ethanol,12,15 according to a detailed procedure we recently reported (Scheme 1).12 Subsequent reduction of ligands 1a and 1b with NaBH4 in methanol led to amine ligands 3a and 3b, respectively, in moderate yields (Scheme 1), which were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance B DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b00346 Inorg. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX Article Inorganic Chemistry 5b is consistent with their ligand being coordinated to the metal center in their reduced form, the corresponding C−N bond length values of 1.486(5) Å for 5a and 1.485(3) for 5b being characteristic of a single bond.18 The centrosymmetric space group (P21/c) in which both 5a and 5b crystallized suggests the presence of a racemic mixture in the solid state. In the case of 5b, two types of crystals were obtained (orange needles and red blocks). When analyzed by X-ray crystallography, both were found to correspond to the same space group, asymmetric unit, and cell parameters. The stability of metallic complexes has previously shown to greatly influence their anticancer activity.19,20 Unlike Schiff base complexes 2a and 2b, corresponding amine complexes 5a and 5b are stable when exposed to air for several weeks, as assessed by NMR and ESI-MS. However, as observed for their imine analogues, ultraviolet−visible (UV−vis) spectra of 5a and 5b display significant time-dependent changes with clear isosbestic points when dissolved in phosphate buffer [0.75% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)], suggesting the occurrence of complex hydrolysis. Hydrolysis rate constants were calculated for complexes 5a and 5b using a pseudo-first-order kinetic model (Table S2) and were found to be approximately 10 times slower (t1/2 = 80.7 min for 5a; t1/2 = 56.3 min for 5b) than those corresponding to their Schiff base counterparts (t1/2 = 9.3 min for 2a; t1/2 = 4.2 min for 2b).12 The latter observation can in part be explained by their different Ru−Cl bond strength, as observed for similar complexes.12 Indeed, in their solid-state structure, the observed Ru−Cl bonds for 5a [2.4019(9) Å] and 5b [2.4196(6) Å] are slightly shorter than the corresponding bonds in the structures of their Schiff base counterparts, 2a [2.427(2) Å] and 2b [2.4395(6) Å], respectively.21 Furthermore, to estimate the stability of 5a and 5b during antiproliferative activity studies, solutions of complexes in water and aqueous phosphate buffer (0.75% DMSO) were kept at 37 °C for 48 h and then analyzed by 1H NMR and ESI-MS. In phosphate buffer, complexes showed two new arene peaks at higher chemical shifts, which could be attributed to aquation and hydrolysis products: [Ru(arene)(L)(H2O)] and [Ru(arene)(L)(OH)] complexes. Unfortunately, it was not possible to distinguish between those two species and the starting complex by MS, as peaks at m/z 448.20 and 432.27 were observed for 5a and 5b, respectively, corresponding to the mass of the ruthenium cation arising from the loss of a ligand (either Cl, H2O, or OH). More complicated 1H NMR and MS spectra were recorded in water alone. For example, after 48 h in water at 37 °C, complexes 5a and 5b displayed several peaks in the arene region suggesting improved stability of complexes in buffered solutions. Under all tested conditions, no DMSO/ phosphate adduct(s) coordination could be observed by 1H NMR or MS. Antiproliferative Activity. The antiproliferative activity of ruthenium complexes 5a and 5b was evaluated against human breast carcinoma (MCF-7), human ovarian cancer cells (A2780), and human neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) and compared with the previously established activity of 2a and 2b against the same cell lines. Their cytotoxicity was assessed using the MTS assay after a 48 h exposure to each compound, and results are presented as IC50 values in Table 1. For most cancer cell lines, amine complexes 5a and 5b exhibited antiproliferative activities higher than those of Schiff base complexes 2a and 2b. Complex 5a was found to be the most cytotoxic compound against cancer cells, and as concluded from our previous studies of complexes 2a and 2b,12 its superior cytotoxicity versus that of 3b might occur prior to their coordination to the ruthenium center, preventing the formation of 5a and 5b, respectively. In addition to NMR and HR-ESI-MS, complexes 4a, 5a, and 5b were also characterized by X-ray crystallography. Single crystals of complexes 4a and 5a were grown by slow evaporation of ethanol and chloroform solutions, respectively, whereas single crystals of complex 5b were obtained by slow evaporation of a methanol/dichloromethane (1:1) solution. Figure 1 presents an ORTEP view of the solid-state structure of Figure 1. ORTEP diagrams of 4a (top), 5a (middle, R Ru SN diastereomer shown), and 5b (bottom, RRuRN diastereomer shown) with thermal ellipsoids drawn at the 50% probability level. For 5a, the chloroform molecule has been omitted for clarity. the three complexes, and a summary of their corresponding crystallographic data is provided in Table S1. Complex 4a exhibits a distorted octahedral geometry (piano-stool structure) comprising an η6-coordinated benzene ring, one nitrogencoordinated cyclohexane methylamine, and two chloride ligands. The crystal structure of similar ruthenium complexes was previously reported.17 Complexes 5a and 5b also display a Ru(II) pseudo-octahedral piano-stool configuration similar to that of previously reported corresponding Schiff base complexes.12 The crystallographic data obtained for 5a and C DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b00346 Inorg. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX Article Inorganic Chemistry Table 1. IC50 Values Determined for Ruthenium Complexes 2a, 2b, 5a, and 5b and cis-Platin against Multiple Cell Lines IC50 (μM)a A2780 2a 2b 5a 5b cis-platin b 30.4 ± 2.8 135 ± 4d 8.9 ± 0.8 50.1 ± 7.1 1.3 ± 0.4 b MCF-7b 67.1 ± 0.7 >150d 13.6 ± 3.6 59.4 ± 7.3 4.1 ± 0.1 88.7 ± 5.9 >150d 49.8 ± 6.3 108 ± 5 27.2 ± 3.3 SH-SY5Y d d d T47Db MCF-12Ac 21.4 ± 0.8 113 ± 11 22.8 ± 4.3 100 ± 6 >150 37.9 ± 0.8 105 ± 7 59.3 ± 7.4 111 ± 12 26.7 ± 3.0 a Inhibitory activity was determined by exposure of cell lines to each complex for 48 h and expressed as the concentration required to inhibit cell metabolic activity by 50% (IC50). Errors correspond to the standard deviation of two to four independent experiments. bCancerous cell line. cNoncancerous cell line. dResult reported previously.12 mol % 5a when a 1:1 water/methanol mixture was heated to 60 °C. It is important to note that because NADH is not thermally stable,27 catalyst efficiency might be underestimated. To allow a comparison with previously reported systems,26b,c,28 the turnover frequency (TOF) of the catalyst was measured within the first 5 min of the reaction. Among the parameters tested, an improved catalytic activity was observed (Table 2) when 5b could be explained by its higher lipophilicity (cyclohexyl vs furan substituent) which might facilitate its cellular uptake. Interestingly, when the human breast T47D cis-platin resistant cancerous cell line22 was also treated with the same metallic complexes (Table 1), both types of complexes displayed a similar cytotoxicity. Importantly, T47D cells were found to be more sensitive to ruthenium treatment than to clinically approved cis-platin, as lower IC50 values were noted when cells were treated with ruthenium complexes bearing either Schiff base or amine ligands. Moreover, when non-cancerous MCF-12A breast cells were treated with the same complexes, reduced amine complex 5a did not only display a toxicity lower than that of its Schiff base counterpart 2a, but did display a toxicity even lower than that of the widely used therapeutic agent cis-platin. Those preliminary results are in line with previous reports suggesting that ruthenium complexes could be considered as interesting alternative drug candidates for cancer patients who do not respond to cis-platin based treatments.23 Catalytic Reduction of NAD+. We found of high interest to assess whether the ruthenium complexes reported here could promote the catalytic transfer hydrogenation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+),2b a coenzyme found in living cells. NAD plays a critical role in cellular metabolism and is involved in numerous intracellular redox reactions.24 The ratio between its oxidized (NAD+) and reduced (NADH) forms is pivotal to the cell as significant shifts from the normal ratio change the cell redox status, causing an alteration in cell metabolism and leading to cell dysfunction.25 As cancer cells are sensitive to changes in their redox balance,2b catalysts able to modulate the intracellular NAD+/NADH ratio can provide a new strategy for the selective treatment of cancer. The ability of complex 5a to promote the catalytic reduction of NAD+ to NADH was confirmed by UV−vis using sodium formate as the hydrogen donor (Scheme 2). Because the catalytic reduction of NAD+ to NADH with Ru(II) catalysts generally leads to very low TON and TOF values when the reaction is performed in water,2b,26 various conditions were initially used to confirm the catalytic nature of the system (Figure S1). Up to 4 TON could be observed after 1 h using 1 Table 2. Reduction of NAD+ Using Formate as the Hydride Source in the Presence of Complex 5aa entry catalyst load (mol %) solvent temp (°C) TOF (h−1)b 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0.5 1 4 8 16 H2O H2O/MeOH (4:1) H2O/MeOH (1:1) phosphate bufferc phosphate buffer phosphate buffer phosphate buffer phosphate buffer phosphate buffer phosphate buffer phosphate buffer phosphate buffer 37 37 37 37 22 45 60 37 37 37 37 37 1.12 ± 0.07 3.14 ± 0.12 3.7 ± 0.09 2.39 ± 0.04 0.62 ± 0.05 4.29 ± 0.13 12.65 ± 0.53 2.12 ± 0.02 2.38 ± 0.05 1.21 ± 0.03 0.58 ± 0.06 0.31 ± 0.01 a General conditions: 8 mM NAD+, 350 mM HCOONa, 992 μL of solvent, 7.5 μL of DMSO, 5 min. bTurnover frequency defined as moles of product per mole of catalyst per hour. Errors correspond to the standard deviation of three independent experiments. cPhosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 7) was used for experiments from entries 4−12. reactions were performed in water/methanol mixtures (entries 1−4) or at higher temperatures (entries 5−7). When using different amounts of 5a under biologically relevant conditions (phosphate buffer, 37 °C, entries 4 and 8−12), the highest TOF obtained was found to be 2.4 h−1, with a catalyst load of either 1 or 2 mol %. Interestingly, lower TOF values were observed when higher catalyst loads were used, suggesting a limited solubility of the catalyst in aqueous phosphate buffer and/or catalyst deactivation due to the formation of multinuclear metal clusters at these higher concentrations.19,29 A catalyst load of 1% was selected to assess the impact of the reduction of the Schiff base ligands on the reactivity of the different systems. Interestingly, amine complexes 5a and 5b were not only found to display higher antiproliferative activities (vide supra) compared to those of their imine analogues (2a and 2b, respectively) but to also display improved catalytic activities (Figure 2). For instance, TOF observed for complex 5b was found to be 4 times higher (1.62 ± 0.2) than the one noted for its corresponding Schiff base complex 2b (0.38 ± 0.09). The enhanced catalytic activity of amine complexes may Scheme 2. Ruthenium-Catalyzed Reduction of NAD+ to NADH D DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b00346 Inorg. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX Article Inorganic Chemistry in oxidative stress and cell death.36 The uncontrolled growth of cancer cells is often associated with increased ROS levels, making them more vulnerable to further ROS-generating insults than normal cells. Thus, the use of ROS-generating catalytic metallodrugs might be a promising strategy to selectively induce cancer cell death.37 This strategy has been reported for some ruthenium10a and osmium38 complexes and successfully applied in a clinical trial with two manganese− porphyrin complexes for the treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer.7 Moreover, according to two reports that were published shortly after the submission of this paper, some Ru−arene transfer hydrogenation catalysts that are able to promote the reduction of intracellular NAD+ can also lead to an increase of ROS levels within cancer cells.39 The effect of ruthenium complexes and cis-platin on the in vitro generation of ROS in the breast cancer cell line MCF-7 was assessed using the DCFDA probe by evaluating intensity of fluorescence radiation emitted from the cells at 2 h intervals after incubation with the compounds at a concentration of 40 μM (Figure 3). Interestingly, a significant increase in the Figure 2. TOF values (moles of product per mole of catalyst per hour) for ruthenium complexes in the catalytic reduction of NAD+ using formate as the hydride source. Conditions: 8 mM NAD+, 350 mM sodium formate, 992 μL of 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7), 7.5 μL of DMSO, 75 μM catalyst, 37 °C, 5 min. Error bars represent standard errors (n = 3). ****P < 0.0001. be attributed to the stabilization of catalyst−substrate interactions through hydrogen bonding, which was previously hypothesized for similar hydrogen transfer systems.30 Turnover frequencies (TOFs) from 0.38 to 2.39 h−1 (Figure 2) were noted, a range of activities that is higher than that of similar complexes with ethylenediamine26a and bipyridine26b ligands, and typically observed for some ruthenium−arene complexes with Noyori’s chelating ligands [N-(2-aminoethyl)-sulfonamides].2b,31 For instance, the ruthenium(II) sulfonamide ethyleneamine complex [(p-cym)Ru(TsEn)CI] [TsEn = N-(2aminoethyl)-4-methyl-benzenesulfonamide], the first ruthenium complex reported to catalyze the reduction of NAD+ to NADH inside cancerous cells, was found to display a TOF value of 2.89 ± 0.08 under similar reaction conditions.2b In contrast to a previous report indicating a direct correlation between the catalytic activity and the hydrolysis rate of ruthenium complexes for the reduction of NAD+,26b we noted a higher catalytic activity for ruthenium complexes with a lower rate of hydrolysis (Figure S2). We investigated the ability of the complexes to catalyze the reduction reaction in living cells by assessing their antiproliferative activity against human cancer cell lines (T47D, A2780, SH-SY5Y, and MCF-7), in the presence of nontoxic doses of sodium formate (2−10 mM).2b For all complexes, no significant change in their antiproliferative activity was noted when cells were co-treated with formate, suggesting that their anticancer activity could possibly take place via another (or multiple) mode(s) of action by interacting with other biomolecules. Transition metal complexes capable of catalyzing the interconversion of NAD+ and NADH inside human cells are scarce2b,28−32 mainly because of the intracellular heterogeneous environment in which the catalyst must operate. For instance, Ru(II),26b,28b,31 Ir(III),28b,c,33 and Rh(III)26b,34 complexes were previously reported to catalyze the hydrogen transfer reaction between NAD+ and NADH but could not operate after being exposed to cells. ROS Generation. Inside each human living cell, a fine balance between reducing and oxidizing agents determines the cell redox status that plays a crucial role in cell survival.3,35 Similar to the catalytic reduction of NAD+ to NADH that can cause modulation of the cell redox status, the overproduction of ROS may also lead to a disrupted cell redox balance, resulting Figure 3. ROS level expressed as the fluorescence intensity of DCFHDA measured after treatment for 2, 4, and 6 h with compounds at a concentration of 40 μM (excitation at 485 nm and emission at 528 nm). Data are presented as means ± standard deviations (n = 5). **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, and ****P < 0.0001 vs cells exposed to the control (0.2% DMSO). #P < 0.01 and ####P < 0.0001 vs cis-platin. fluorescence intensity, proportional to ROS generation, was observed for samples treated with ruthenium complexes bearing amine ligands 5a and 5b, indicating their possible ability to modulate the cell redox status by in vitro ROS generation. However, a treatment with their imine counterparts 2a and 2b has not led to ROS induction inside cancerous cells, suggesting their lack of intracellular redox activity. In addition, a 6 h treatment with the same concentration of cis-platin, an anticancer agent known to generate ROS inside human cells,40 also led to in vitro ROS induction but resulted in a fluorescence intensity slightly lower (P < 0.01) than that observed for ruthenium complexes 5a and 5b. Induction of intracellular ROS was previously reported as a cancer cell killing mechanism for several Ru(II)−arene complexes.10a,39,41 ■ CONCLUSION Results obtained in the course of this study demonstrate the impact that a simple ligand modification such as the reduction of an imine moiety can have on the biological activity of metal complexes. In the case presented here, reduction of Schiff base E DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b00346 Inorg. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX Article Inorganic Chemistry 1H, Hnaphthyl), 7.28 (m, 1H, Hnaphthyl), 7.09 (d, 3JH,H = 8.8 Hz, 1H, Hnaphthyl), 4.47 (s, 2H, naphthyl-CH2-N), 2.62 (d, 3JH,H = 6.6 Hz, 2H, cyclohexyl-CH2-N), 1.84−1.66 (m, 5H, Hcyclohexyl), 1.55 (m, 1H, Hcyclohexyl), 1.35−1.07 (3H, m, Hcyclohexyl), 1.06−0.87 (2H, m, Hcyclohexyl). 13C{1H} NMR (100 MHz, CDCl3): δ 157.2 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 132.5 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 129.1 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 129.0 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 128.5 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 126.4 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 122.4 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 121.0 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 119.7 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 112.1 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 56.1 (1C, cyclohexyl-CH2-N), 48.1 (1C, naphthyl-CH2-N), 37.8, 31.4, 26.6, 26.1 (6C, Ccyclohexyl). HR-ESI-MS: m/z (+) found 270.18 [M + H]+ (calcd 270.18). Anal. Calcd (%) for C18H23NO: C, 80.26; H, 8.61; N, 5.20. Found: C, 80.55; H, 9.29; N, 5.21. Ligand 3b. 1b (0.200 g, 0.80 mmol). Yield: 77%. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3): δ 7.79−7.72 (m, 3H, Hnaphthyl), 7.46−7.41 (m, 2H, 1Hnaphthyl + 1Hfuryl), 7.32−7.27 (m, 1H, Hnaphthyl), 7.13 (d, 3JH,H = 8.8 Hz, 1H, Hnaphthyl), 6.35 (m, 1H, Hfuryl), 6.29 (m, 1H, Hfuryl) 4.42 (s, 2H, naphthyl-CH2-N), 3.88 (s, 2H, furyl-CH2-N). 13C{1H} NMR (100 MHz, CDCl3): δ 156.8 (1C, Cnaphtyl), 151.7 (1C, Cfuryl), 142.5 (1C, Cfuryl), 132.5 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 129.2 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 128.8 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 128.4 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 126.2 (1C, Cnaphtyl), 122.4 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 121.0 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 119.4 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 111.5 (1C, Cnaphthyl), 110.3 (1C, Cfuryl), 108.4 (1C, Cfuryl), 45.8 (1C, naphthyl-CH2-N), 44.4 (1C, furylCH2-N). HR-ESI-MS: m/z (+) found 254.11 [M + H]+ (calcd 254.11); Anal. Calcd (%) for C16H15NO2: C, 75.87; H, 5.97; N, 5.53. Found: C, 76.14; H, 6.39; N, 5.56. Synthesis of 4a. One hundred milligrams of [Ru(benzene)Cl2]2 (2 mmol) and 107 mg of 3a (0.40 mmol, 2 equiv) were refluxed in 15 mL of ethanol for 4 h. The reaction mixture was filtered through a small pad of Celite, and a slow evaporation of the filtrate yielded 4a as orange needle-shaped crystals that were collected and washed with cold ethanol and diethyl ether. Yield: 15%. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CD2Cl2): δ 5.61 (s, 6H, η6-benzene), 3.08−2.93 (m, 2H, CH2), 2.88 (br, 2H, NH2), 1.84−1.68 (m, 4H, Hcyclohexyl), 1.70−1.64 (m, 1H, Hcyclohexyl), 1.52−1.37 (m, 1H, Hcyclohexyl), 1.32−1.09 (m, 3H, Hcyclohexyl), 1.02−0.87 (m, 2H, Hcyclohexyl). 13C{1H} NMR (100 MHz, CD2Cl2): δ 83.3 (6C, η6-benzene), 57.0 (1C, CH2), 41.2, 31.0, 26.8, 26.2 (6C, Ccyclohexyl). HR-ESI-MS: m/z (+) found 364.01 [M + H]+ (calcd 364.01). Anal. Calcd (%) for C13H21Cl2NRu: C, 42.98; H, 5.83; N, 3.86. Found: C, 43.49; H, 6.07; N, 3.84. General Procedure for the Synthesis of 5a and 5b. A mixture of [Ru(benzene)Cl2]2 (1 equiv), corresponding reduced ligand (2.5 equiv), and triethylamine (6.1 equiv) was stirred in 15 mL of dry ethanol (or acetonitrile) at room temperature for 3 h, which resulted in the formation of an orange-red precipitate that was collected by filtration and washed with acetonitrile, ethanol, and diethyl ether. Complex 5a. 64 mg of [Ru(benzene)Cl2]2 (0.13 mmol), 86 mg of 3a (0.32 mmol), and 109 μL of triethylamine (0.78 mmol). Yield: 45%. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3): δ 7.69 (d, 3JH,H = 8.0 Hz, 1H, ArH), 7.48 (t, 3JH,H = 10.1 Hz, 2H, ArH), 7.40 (m, 2H, ArH), 7.18 (m, 1H, ArH), 5.40 (s, 6H, η6-benzene), 4.29 (m, 2H, naphthyl-CH2-N), 3.64 (m, 1H, cyclohexyl-CH2-N), 3.44 (m, 1H, cyclohexyl-CH2-N), 3.29 (br, 1H, CH2-NH-CH2), 2.03 (m, 1H, N-CH2-CHcyclohexyl), 0.87− 1.80 (m, 10H, Hcyclohexyl). 13C{1H} NMR (100 MHz, CDCl3): δ 166.2 (1C, CAr), 132.4 (1C, CAr), 128.7 (1C, CAr), 127.6 (1C, CAr), 126.8 (1C, CAr), 126.0 (1C, CAr), 125.1 (1C, CAr), 121.0 (1C, CAr), 119.0 (1C, CAr), 111.9 (1C, CAr), 82.4 (6C, η6-benzene), 65.8 (2C, N-CH2cyclohexyl), 52.9 (naphthyl-CH2-N), 35.0 (1C, N-CH2-CHcyclohexyl), 31.5, 29.6, 26.1, 25.9, 25.2 (6C, Ccyclohexyl). HR-ESI-MS: m/z (+) found 484.09 [M + H]+ (calcd 484.09); Anal. Calcd (%) for C24H28ClNORu· H2O: C, 57.53; H, 6.04; N, 2.80. Found: C, 58.34; H, 6.00; N, 2.99. Complex 5b. 64 mg of [Ru(benzene)Cl2]2 (0.13 mmol), 81 mg of 3b (0.32 mmol), and 109 μL of triethylamine (0.78 mmol). Yield: 33%. 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3, major isomer): δ 7.67 (d, 3JH,H = 7.67 Hz, 1H, Hnaphthyl), 7.48 (m, 2H, 1Hnaphthyl + 1Hfuryl), 7.42−7.34 (m, 3H, Hnaphthyl), 7.17 (ddd, J = 8.0, 5.6, 2.4 Hz, 1H, Hnaphthyl), 6.49 (d, 3JH,H = 3.2 Hz, 1H, Hfuryl), 6.40 (dd, 3JH,H = 3.2, 1.9 Hz, 1H, Hfuryl), 5.42 (s, 6H, η6-benzene), 4.97 (dd, J = 14.4, 2.2 Hz, 1H, CH2), 4.52− 4.35 (m, 2H, CH2), 4.09 (dd, 3JH,H = 15.2, 2.9 Hz, 1H, CH2), 3.62 (br, 1H, CH2-NH-CH2). 1H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3, minor isomer): δ 7.64 (d, 3JH,H = 8.8 Hz, 1H, ArH), 7.32 (dd, 3JH,H = 13.1, 4.2 Hz, 1H, ligands to amines led to the formation of ruthenium complexes with the ability to induce accumulation of intracellular ROS. Moreover, results from this study also show that such small modifications can have a positive influence on the stability of metal complexes toward hydrolysis as well as on their ability to promote a catalytic reaction, such as the biologically relevant reduction of the coenzyme NAD+ to NADH. Besides, the ruthenium complexes reported here were found to display some antiproliferative activity against a human cell line known for its cis-platin resistance. Although the catalytic reaction investigated in this study (NAD+ reduction) was not evidently related to the antiproliferative activity of the reported ruthenium complexes, studies to assess if their anticancer activity can be linked to their ability to catalytically generate ROS in vitro are underway. ■ EXPERIMENTAL SECTION General Remarks. All chemicals were purchased from commercial sources and used without further purification. [Ru(benzene)Cl2]2 was prepared and characterized according to a literature procedure,42 whereas ligands 1a and 1b and their corresponding complexes (2a and 2b, respectively) were prepared according to procedures we recently reported.12 The CellTiter 96 Aqueous One Solution Cell Proliferation Assay (MTS reagent) was purchased from Promega Corp. (Madison, WI). All reactions were performed under an inert atmosphere of nitrogen using Schlenk techniques. All solvents were dried using a solvent purification system (Pure Process Technology). BioTek Synergy HT and Tecan Infinite M1000 PRO microplate readers were used to record the absorbance (490 nm) of multiwell plates. NMR spectra (1H, 13C{1H}, COSY, HSQC, HMQC, and HMBC) were recorded on a 400 MHz Varian (Prometic Biosciences) or 500 MHz Bruker (Department of Chemistry, McGill University) spectrometers (25 °C). Chemical shifts (δ) and coupling constants are expressed in parts per million and hertz, respectively. 1H and 13 C{1H} spectra were referenced to solvent resonances, and spectral assignments were confirmed by two-dimensional experiments. UV−vis spectra were recorded on a Cary 300 Bio UV−vis spectrometer. The purity (≥95%) of all complexes was confirmed by elemental analyses (Laboratoire d’Analyse É lémentaire, Département de Chimie, Université de Montréal). High-resolution and high-accuracy mass spectra (HR-ESI-MS) were recorded using an Exactive Orbitrap spectrometer from ThermoFisher Scientific (Department of Chemistry, McGill University). Diffraction measurements were performed on a SMART APEX II diffractometer equipped with a CCD detector, an Incoatec IMuS source (Cu), and a Quazar MX mirror (5b) or a Bruker Venture diffractometer (a liquid Ga Metal Jet source) equipped with a Photon 100 CMOS detector, Helios MX optics, and a Kappa goniometer (4a and 5a) (Department of Chemistry, Université de Montréal). Column chromatography was performed using a Biotage Isolera One flash purification system with silica gel KP-Sil SNAP cartridges. All statistical analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism 6.01 software. Outliers were identified and removed from the analysis using the Rout method (Q < 5%). Analysis of variance was used to test the significance of the difference between the means, and a P value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant. General Procedure for the Synthesis of 3a and 3b. NaBH4 (0.060 g, 1.59 mmol, ∼2 equiv) was added to an ice-cooled solution of Schiff base ligand 1 (1 equiv) in methanol (7 mL), and the reaction mixture was kept in an ice bath for 5 min. The ice bath was then removed, and the reaction mixture was allowed to stir for an additional 15−20 min until the solution became colorless. The reaction was quenched with water (10 mL, Milli-Q), and the resulting slurry was stirred vigorously for 30 min at room temperature. After the filtration of the reaction mixture and several washings with water (Milli-Q), a white solid was obtained and dried in a desiccator. Ligand 3a. 1a (0.200 g, 0.75 mmol). Yield: 98%. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3): δ 7.80 (d, 3JH,H = 8.6 Hz, 1H, Hnaphthyl), 7.75 (d, 3JH,H = 8.1 Hz, 1H, Hnaphthyl), 7.68 (d, 3JH,H = 8.8 Hz, 1H, Hnaphthyl), 7.43 (m, F DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b00346 Inorg. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX Article Inorganic Chemistry ArH), 6.54−6.50 (m, 2H, furyl), 5.31 (s, 6H, η6-benzene), 4.69 (dd, 3 JH,H = 14.5, 6.6 Hz, 1H, CH2), 4.20 (dd, 3JH,H = 14.5, 6.6 Hz, 1H, CH2), 3.90 (m, 1H, CH2), 3.48−3.38 (m, 1H, CH2). Peaks of five aromatic hydrogens and the hydrogen of the N−H bond overlap with those of the major isomer. 13C{1H} NMR (125 MHz, CDCl3): δ 166.5 (1C, CAr), 150.3 (1C, CAr), 143.4 (1C, CAr), 132.5 (1C, CAr), 128.7 (1C, CAr), 127.8 (1C, CAr), 127.0 (1C, CAr), 126.2 (1C, CAr), 125.1 (1C, CAr), 121.3 (1C, CAr), 119.4 (1C, CAr), 112.4 (1C, CAr), 111.1 (1C, Cfuryl), 111.0 (1C, Cfuryl), 82.6 (6C, η6-benzene), 54.2 (1C, CH2), 53.1 (1C, CH2). HR-ESI-MS: m/z (+) found 468.03 [M + H]+ (calcd 468.03). Anal. Calcd (%) for C22H20ClNO2Ru·H2O: C, 54.49; H, 4.57; N, 2.89. Found: C, 55.04; H, 4.25; N, 2.95. X-ray Crystallography. Cell refinement and data reduction were performed using APEX2. Absorption corrections were applied using SADABS. Structures were determined by direct methods using SHELXS-97 and refined on F2 by full-matrix least squares using SHELXL-97 or SHELXL-2014. All non-hydrogen atoms were refined anisotropically, whereas hydrogen atoms were refined isotropically on calculated positions using a riding model.43 Hydrolysis. A stock solution (7.5 μL) of the complexes in DMSO (20 mM) was added directly to 992 μL of phosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 7) in a UV−vis cuvette to reach a final complex concentration of 150 μM. The absorbance was monitored using UV−vis spectroscopy at 5 min intervals over 2 h at 297 K. Plots of the change in absorbance (at the wavelength corresponding to the maximum change in UV−vis spectra) versus time were fitted to the equation for pseudo-first-order kinetics using GraphPad Prism 6.01 software. Reaction rate constants (KH2O) and half-lives (t1/2) were determined by the software and expressed as means ± the standard deviation of three independent experiments. Catalytic Reduction of NAD+. A stock solution (7.5 μL) of the complexes in DMSO (10 mM), 100 μL of a stock solution of sodium formate in water (3.5 M), and 732 μL of phosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 7) were introduced into a UV−vis cell. The solution was monitored by UV−vis spectroscopy (250−600 nm) until no further change in the absorbance spectrum was observed, indicating that the hydrolysis reaction had reached equilibrium. Then, 160 μL of a stock solution of NAD+ in water (50 mM) was added to the UV−vis cell, and formation of NADH was monitored by repeated measurements of the absorbance at λ = 340 nm (ε = 6230 M−1 cm−1)28a over a period of 60 min. For instance, in a typical catalytic experiment, final concentrations of Ru complex, NAD+, and sodium formate were 75 μM, 8 mM, and 350 mM, respectively (1:107:4667). Turnover frequency (TOF) values were determined by measuring turnover numbers (TONs, moles of product per mole of catalyst) for the initial 5 min of the catalytic reaction and are presented as means ± the standard deviation of three independent experiments. Cell Culture. The protocols used for biological studies were approved by the Institutional Research Ethics Committee of INRSInstitut Armand-Frappier. MCF-7 and A2780 cells were routinely grown in a Roswell Park Memorial Institute medium (RPMI-1640) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and 1% penicillin/ streptomycin. ATCC-formulated RPMI-1640 supplemented with 0.2 unit/mL bovine insulin and 10% fetal bovine serum was used as the base medium for the T47D cell line. The complete growth medium for SH-SY5Y was an equal volume mixture of minimum essential medium and Ham’s F12 nutrient mixture supplemented with sodium pyruvate (50 mg/L), 1% penicillin/streptomycin, and 15% FBS. The MCF-12A cells were grown in a DMEM/Ham’s F12 (1:1) medium (containing L-glutamine, 15 mM HEPES, and sodium bicarbonate) supplemented with human EGF (20 ng/mL), cholera toxin (100 ng/mL), bovine insulin (10 ng/mL), hydrocortisone (500 ng/mL), 1% penicillin/ streptomycin, and 5% horse serum. All components of culture media were purchased from Gibco, Invitrogen, and Sigma. Cell lines were grown as adherent monolayers in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2 and 95% air at 37 °C. These cells were passaged two or three times per week at ∼70−80% confluency by harvesting with trypsin and EDTA and seeding at a 1:4 to 1:10 ratio into 75 cm2 flasks. Cells were used up to 10 passages after being thawed. MTS Assays. Cell culture-treated 96-well plates (Sarstedt) were used to seed 5000 (A2780), 10000 (MCF-7, T47D, and MCF-12A), or 30000 (SH-SY5Y) cells per well. Plates were preincubated with the drug free medium at 37 °C (5% CO2) for 24 h. Stock solutions of the test compounds in DMSO (10 or 20 mM) were diluted in complete culture medium to give final concentrations in the range of 1−150 μM (the maximum DMSO content did not exceed 0.75%). Medium was removed from wells, and 100 μL aliquots of these dilutions were added to each well for a drug exposure period of 48 h. Then, 20 μL of MTS reagent [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium bromide] was added to each well. The optical density, directly proportional to the cell metabolic activity, was quantified at 490 nm using a multiwell plate reader, and the antiproliferative activity was calculated by comparison to positive (25% DMSO) and negative controls (untreated wells). IC50 values, concentrations that inhibit cell metabolic activity by 50%, were determined from concentration−effect curves by interpolation. This assay was performed in two to four independent sets of experiments, each experiment with four to six replicates per concentration level. In Vitro ROS Generation. MCF-7 cells were seeded into Corning black side clear bottom 96-well plates (20000 cells/well) and grown overnight in complete medium. The medium was removed, and cells were washed with 100 μL of phenol red free RMPI-1640 and loaded with a 100 μL solution of 20 μM DCFDA in phenol red free RPMI1640 (0.1% DMSO) for 45 min at 37 °C. After loading, unincorporated dye was removed by washing with 100 μL of phenol red free RMPI-1640. Compounds were freshly dissolved in DMSO (20 mM), diluted in phenol red free RMPI-1640 containing 1% FBS serum, and added to the cells to a final concentration of 40 μM. Fluorescence measurements were taken using a microplate reader by a 485/20 nm excitation and 528/20 nm emission filter pair from the bottom every 2 h for a total of 6 h (PMT sensitivity setting of 55). The experiment was performed in five replicates, and 20 μM H2O2 was used as a positive control. ■ ASSOCIATED CONTENT S Supporting Information * The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b00346. Scheme S1, Tables S1 and S2, Figures S1 and S2, 1H and 13 C{1H} NMR spectra, and references (PDF) Accession Codes CCDC 1558368−1558369 and 1821535 contain the supplementary crystallographic data for this paper. These data can be obtained free of charge via www.ccdc.cam.ac.uk/data_request/ cif, or by emailing data_request@ccdc.cam.ac.uk, or by contacting The Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre, 12 Union Road, Cambridge CB2 1EZ, UK; fax: +44 1223 336033. ■ AUTHOR INFORMATION Corresponding Author *E-mail: annie.castonguay@iaf.inrs.ca. ORCID Annie Castonguay: 0000-0001-5705-6353 Notes The authors declare no competing financial interest. ■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was supported by INRS-Institut Armand-Frappier, the Natural Sciences and Enginneering Research Council of Canada (Discovery Grant), the Fonds de Recherche en Santé du Québec (Établissement de Jeunes Chercheurs), the Canada Foundation for Innovation (John Evans Leaders Fund), and the Armand-Frappier Foundation (Banque Nationale Scholarship G DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b00346 Inorg. Chem. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX Article Inorganic Chemistry Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 4240−4242. (b) Dub, P. A.; Gordon, J. C. 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